The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which came into effect on May 25, 2018, introduced several significant changes compared to previous data protection regulations, such as the 1995 Data Protection Directive. Key changes include:

1. Extended Territorial Scope: GDPR applies to all companies processing the personal data of individuals residing in the EU, regardless of the company’s location. This extraterritorial applicability ensures that non-EU businesses are also subject to GDPR if they offer goods or services to, or monitor the behavior of, EU residents.

2. Stronger Consent Requirements: Consent must be freely given, specific, informed, and unambiguous. Pre-ticked boxes and implied consent are no longer acceptable. Businesses must provide clear and plain language explanations of how personal data will be used.

3. Enhanced Data Subject Rights: GDPR grants individuals more control over their personal data, including the right to access, rectification, erasure (the right to be forgotten), data portability, and the right to object to processing.

4. Accountability and Compliance: Organizations must demonstrate compliance with GDPR principles. This includes maintaining records of data processing activities, conducting data protection impact assessments (DPIAs), and implementing data protection by design and by default.

5. Breach Notification: GDPR mandates that data breaches likely to result in a risk to individuals’ rights and freedoms must be reported to the relevant supervisory authority within 72 hours of becoming aware of the breach. Affected individuals must also be informed without undue delay.

6. Increased Penalties: Non-compliance can result in significant fines. Penalties can reach up to €20 million or 4% of the company’s global annual turnover, whichever is higher.

7. Data Protection Officers (DPOs): Organizations engaged in large-scale monitoring or processing of sensitive data must appoint a DPO to oversee GDPR compliance and act as a point of contact for supervisory authorities and data subjects.

GDPR’s extraterritorial scope means that businesses outside the EU must comply with its regulations if they process personal data of individuals within the EU. This affects non-EU businesses in several ways:

1. Applicability: Non-EU businesses offering goods or services to EU residents, or monitoring their behavior (e.g., through cookies or other tracking technologies), are subject to GDPR. This includes online businesses and e-commerce platforms.

2. Appointing Representatives: Non-EU companies may need to appoint an EU-based representative to act on their behalf regarding GDPR compliance and liaise with supervisory authorities.

3. Data Transfer Restrictions: GDPR imposes strict rules on transferring personal data outside the EU. Non-EU businesses must ensure adequate protection measures, such as Standard Contractual Clauses (SCCs) or Binding Corporate Rules (BCRs), are in place when transferring data from the EU to third countries.

4. Adapting Privacy Policies: Non-EU businesses must update their privacy policies and notices to comply with GDPR’s transparency and information requirements. This includes providing clear information about data processing activities and individuals’ rights under GDPR.

5. Compliance Measures: Non-EU companies need to implement GDPR-compliant data protection measures, such as obtaining valid consent, enabling data subject rights, and ensuring robust data security practices.

GDPR provides individuals with several rights to enhance their control over personal data:

1. Right to Access: Individuals can request access to their personal data and obtain information about how it is being processed. Businesses must provide a copy of the data free of charge and within one month of the request.

2. Right to Rectification: Individuals can request the correction of inaccurate or incomplete personal data. Organizations must promptly update the data upon receiving a valid request.

3. Right to Erasure (Right to Be Forgotten): Individuals can request the deletion of their personal data in certain circumstances, such as when the data is no longer necessary for the purposes it was collected, or consent is withdrawn. Organizations must erase the data unless there are legitimate grounds for retention.

4. Right to Restrict Processing: Individuals can request the restriction of data processing under specific conditions, such as contesting the accuracy of the data or objecting to processing. Restricted data can only be processed with the individual’s consent or for specific legal reasons.

5. Right to Data Portability: Individuals can request to receive their personal data in a structured, commonly used, and machine-readable format and have the right to transmit the data to another controller without hindrance.

6. Right to Object: Individuals can object to the processing of their personal data based on legitimate interests or direct marketing purposes. Organizations must cease processing unless they demonstrate compelling legitimate grounds.

7. Rights Related to Automated Decision-Making and Profiling: Individuals have the right not to be subject to decisions based solely on automated processing, including profiling, which significantly affects them. They can request human intervention and contest decisions.

Individuals can exercise these rights by submitting requests to the data controller, who must respond within one month. Businesses must establish procedures to handle such requests and ensure compliance with GDPR’s requirements.

Under GDPR, processing personal data is only lawful if one of the following bases applies:

1. Consent: The individual has given clear, informed consent for the processing of their data for specific purposes. Consent must be explicit, documented, and easily withdrawable.

2. Contractual Necessity: Processing is necessary for the performance of a contract to which the individual is a party or to take steps at the request of the individual before entering into a contract.

3. Legal Obligation: Processing is necessary to comply with a legal obligation to which the data controller is subject.

4. Vital Interests: Processing is necessary to protect the vital interests of the individual or another natural person, typically in life-and-death situations.

5. Public Task: Processing is necessary for the performance of a task carried out in the public interest or in the exercise of official authority vested in the controller.

6. Legitimate Interests: Processing is necessary for the legitimate interests of the controller or a third party, provided these interests are not overridden by the individual’s fundamental rights and freedoms. This basis requires careful balancing and justification.

Ensuring GDPR compliance involves several steps and ongoing efforts:

1. Data Mapping and Inventory: Conduct a comprehensive data audit to understand what personal data is collected, processed, stored, and shared. Document data flows and identify areas of risk.

2. Update Policies and Procedures: Revise privacy policies, notices, and consent mechanisms to align with GDPR requirements. Ensure transparency and provide clear information about data processing activities.

3. Implement Data Protection Measures: Adopt technical and organizational measures to protect personal data, including encryption, access controls, and regular security assessments. Ensure data protection by design and by default.

4. Appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO): If required, appoint a DPO to oversee GDPR compliance, manage data protection practices, and act as a point of contact for supervisory authorities and individuals.

5. Conduct Data Protection Impact Assessments (DPIAs): Assess the impact of high-risk data processing activities on individuals’ privacy and take steps to mitigate identified risks.

6. Establish Procedures for Data Subject Rights: Develop processes to handle requests for access, rectification, erasure, and other rights. Ensure timely and appropriate responses to individuals’ requests.

7. Train Employees: Educate staff about GDPR requirements, data protection principles, and their roles in ensuring compliance. Regular training and awareness programs are essential.

8. Monitor and Review Compliance: Regularly review and update data protection practices, policies, and procedures. Conduct audits and risk assessments to identify and address potential compliance gaps.

By taking these steps, businesses can build a robust GDPR compliance framework and mitigate the risk of non-compliance.

Handling data breaches effectively is critical under GDPR. The regulation sets out specific procedures that companies must follow:

1. Notification to Supervisory Authority: Data breaches that are likely to result in a risk to individuals' rights and freedoms must be reported to the relevant supervisory authority without undue delay and, where feasible, within 72 hours of becoming aware of the breach. The notification must include the nature of the breach, the categories and approximate number of data subjects and records affected, contact details of the Data Protection Officer (DPO) or other contact point, the likely consequences of the breach, and measures taken or proposed to address the breach.

2. Notification to Data Subjects: If the data breach is likely to result in a high risk to the rights and freedoms of individuals, the affected data subjects must be informed without undue delay. The communication should include a clear description of the nature of the breach, the likely consequences, measures taken or proposed to mitigate the breach, and contact details for further information.

3. Documentation of Breaches: All data breaches, whether they need to be reported or not, must be documented. This documentation should include the facts relating to the breach, its effects, and the remedial actions taken. This helps demonstrate compliance with GDPR’s accountability principle.

4. Mitigation Measures: Companies should have an incident response plan in place to manage data breaches. This includes measures to contain and recover from the breach, assess its impact, and prevent future breaches. Regular training and simulations can help prepare staff to respond effectively.

A Data Protection Officer (DPO) plays a crucial role in ensuring an organization's compliance with GDPR. The DPO's responsibilities include:

1. Monitoring Compliance: The DPO monitors the organization's compliance with GDPR, including managing data protection activities, raising awareness, training staff, and conducting audits.

2. Data Protection Impact Assessments (DPIAs): The DPO advises on and monitors the performance of DPIAs, which assess the impact of processing activities on data protection.

3. Point of Contact: The DPO acts as a point of contact for data subjects, addressing their queries and exercising their rights under GDPR. The DPO also serves as the contact point for supervisory authorities.

4. Advisory Role: The DPO advises the organization on data protection obligations, best practices, and any changes in the regulatory landscape.

A DPO is required in the following circumstances:

• Public authorities or bodies, except for courts acting in their judicial capacity.

• Organizations whose core activities involve regular and systematic monitoring of data subjects on a large scale.

• Organizations processing special categories of data (such as health data) or data relating to criminal convictions and offenses on a large scale.

GDPR has significant implications for the use of cookies and online tracking technologies. These technologies often involve processing personal data, which brings them under GDPR’s scope. Key impacts include:

1. Consent Requirements: Under GDPR, cookies that process personal data require informed consent from the user. Consent must be freely given, specific, informed, and unambiguous. Users must be informed about the types of cookies being used, their purpose, and must provide clear affirmative action to consent. This has led to the implementation of cookie banners and consent management platforms.

2. Transparency: Websites must provide clear and comprehensive information about their use of cookies and tracking technologies. This includes detailing what data is collected, how it is used, and with whom it is shared.

3. Opt-out Options: Users should have the option to withdraw their consent at any time and must be provided with easy means to do so. This means websites need to offer clear opt-out mechanisms and ensure they respect users’ choices.

4. Impact on Behavioral Advertising: GDPR has made it more challenging to use cookies for behavioral advertising without obtaining explicit consent. This has affected the ad tech industry, which relies heavily on tracking cookies to serve targeted ads.

GDPR poses several implications for emerging technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML):

1. Data Minimization and Purpose Limitation: AI and ML systems often require large datasets to function effectively. GDPR’s principles of data minimization and purpose limitation require that only the necessary data for a specific purpose be processed, which can be challenging for these technologies.

2. Transparency and Explainability: GDPR mandates transparency in data processing. AI and ML systems, which are often considered "black boxes," must be able to explain their data processing methods and decisions in understandable terms. This requires developing explainable AI techniques.

3. Consent and Lawful Basis: AI and ML applications must have a lawful basis for processing personal data. If consent is used, it must be explicit and informed. Organizations must clearly communicate how they use personal data within AI systems and obtain the necessary permissions.

4. Profiling and Automated Decision-Making: GDPR grants individuals rights related to automated decision-making and profiling. Organizations using AI for automated decisions must ensure individuals can contest these decisions, request human intervention, and receive explanations about the decision-making process.

5. Data Protection Impact Assessments (DPIAs): Organizations must conduct DPIAs for AI and ML systems that involve high-risk processing activities. DPIAs help assess and mitigate the impact on data subjects’ privacy.

6. Ethical Considerations: GDPR encourages ethical considerations in data processing. Organizations must consider the fairness, accountability, and bias of their AI and ML systems to ensure they do not perpetuate discrimination or harm individuals’ rights.

7. Data Security: AI and ML systems must implement robust security measures to protect personal data from breaches and unauthorized access, ensuring compliance with GDPR’s security requirements.